Method and apparatus for multi-stage power supplies

ABSTRACT

A power supply having an specified hold-up time to take a input voltage and convert it to an output voltage, comprising: a first power stage to receive the input voltage; a second power stage to generate the output voltage and an output current; an intermediate charge storage device coupled between the first and second power conversion stages providing an intermediate output voltage in response to the input voltage; and a controller that controls the intermediate output voltage according to a voltage function that is associated with the hold-up time.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

This invention generally relates to a method and apparatus to achieve efficiency optimization of multi-stage power supplies by adaptive control of the intermediate voltage.

BACKGROUND

Until recently, efficiency increases of power conversion circuits were primarily driven by increased power density requirements. Generally, it is well known that to increase power density, incremental improvements in full-load efficiency must be made in order to ensure that the thermal performance is not adversely affected. However, today, the power supply industry is at the beginning of a major focus shift that puts efficiency improvements across the entire load range in the forefront of customers' performance requirements. This focus on efficiency has been prompted by economic reasons and environmental concerns caused by the continuous, aggressive growth of the Internet infrastructure and a relatively low energy efficiency of its power delivery system. In fact, the environmental concerns have prompted Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to revise its Energy Star specifications for power supply efficiencies by defining the minimum efficiencies from full load down to 20% of full load. However, major computer, telecom, and network-equipment manufacturers are already demanding light-load efficiencies exceeding the latest Energy Star specifications and also are extending these requirements down to 10% and, even 5% loads.

In general, the efficiency of power conversion circuits at heavy loads is determined by conduction losses of semiconductor and magnetic components, whereas the efficiency of these power conversion circuits at light loads are primarily determined by switching losses of semiconductors, core losses of magnetics, and drive losses of semiconductor switches. Because switching and drive losses of semiconductor switches and core losses of magnetic components are almost independent of the load current, a typical efficiency curve as a function of the load current exhibits a steep decline as the load current decreases within 20-30% of the full load current. In fact, for a typical power converter, the light load efficiency, e.g., efficiency at 10%, is significantly lower than that at full load.

Generally, minimization of the conduction losses to optimize the full-load efficiency requires maximization of the silicon area and minimization of the resistance of copper conductors. Specifically, the minimization of the semiconductor conduction loss calls for the selection of MOSFETs with minimum on-resistances and rectifiers with minimum forward voltage drops, whereas the conduction loss of magnetic components such as input- and output-filter inductors, transformers, and interconnect losses, are minimized by reducing the resistance of copper conductors, i.e., by shortening the length and increasing the cross-section of wires and PCB traces. The minimization of core losses of magnetic components, switching losses of semiconductors, and drive losses is based on the selection of the optimal switching frequency and the use of low-loss magnetic materials, MOSFET switches with inherently lower switching losses, and rectifiers with a low reverse-recovery charge and/or by employing various soft-switching techniques that substantially reduce switching losses of semiconductors.

In general, established efficiency optimization techniques for power supplies are very often incapable of delivering an efficiency curve that meets customers' expectations across the entire load range. This is especially true for alternating current (AC)/direct current (DC), e.g., off-line, power supplies intended for high-power applications. In this case, it is a common practice to resort to power-supply-level power management techniques to further improve partial-load efficiencies. Generally, these power-supply-level power management techniques are based on changing an operation mode according to the load current and/or input voltage conditions. Conventional power management techniques may include variable switching frequency control, bulk-voltage reduction technique, phase-shedding technique, and “burst”-mode operation technique. While all these load-activity-based power management techniques have been implemented using analog technology, the current rapid employment of digital technology in power conversion applications has made their implementation much easier.

In off-line converters that require an active power-factor-correction (PFC) front-end, reduction of the energy-storage (bulk) voltage was extensively used to improve the efficiency over the line voltage range. This method is based on the fact that the switching losses in semiconductor components such as MOSFET switches and fast-recovery diode rectifiers are reduced if the voltage that they need to switch off is reduced. In a typical universal-line (e.g., 90-264 V_(rms)) AC/DC power supply with a PFC front end, the bulk voltage is set at a lower value at a low line voltage, and increased, either linearly or nonlinearly, to a higher value as the peak of the line voltage increases. The bulk capacitor value is determined such that the bulk capacitor can support the full power for a specified hold-up time (usually in the 12-ms to 20-ms range) at the minimum bulk voltage value. The range of the bulk voltage is limited by the regulation-range of the downstream DC/DC output stage.

Known technique disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,349,284 positions the intermediate bulk voltage based solely on the peak of the input voltage. In other words, the intermediate bulk voltage is set greater than and proportional to the peak input voltage in order to improve the efficiency of the PFC boost stage over the universal line range (i.e., 65-265 V_(AC)).

Known techniques disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,289,361 and U.S. Pat. No. 5,406,192 position the intermediate bulk voltage based on the input voltage and the operating range of a load converter. In general, the intermediate bulk voltage is always set higher than the peak input voltage, and is adjusted either linearly or nonlinearly between two limits that are chosen based on the voltage operating range of a load converter.

Although the described techniques have led to an improvement in efficiency over a wide line voltage range, they suffer from some major drawbacks that limit their area of application. Namely, they do not take advantage of the fact that the intermediate bulk voltage can be lowered as the output power decreases, leading to a significantly reduced partial-load efficiency. Another major drawback of the known techniques is that in applications which have a hold-up time requirement, the bulk capacitor value and volume is excessively large, since it must store enough energy at the minimum intermediate bulk voltage to permit the load converters to regulate the output voltage during the hold-up time. As the line voltage increases and the intermediate bulk voltage is increased by the controller, or as the output power decreases, the bulk capacitor stores superfluous energy which is unnecessary to meet the specifications. Moreover, the volume of the bulk capacitor is determined largely by the maximum intermediate bulk voltage value.

Another major concern with the described intermediate bulk-voltage reduction and stage-shedding techniques described is the dynamic performance. Specifically, their ability to restore full-power capability without output disturbance or other performance deterioration when the load suddenly changes from light load to full load.

In this invention, implementations of power converters that offer maximized light-load efficiencies without the limitations of prior-art techniques are described.

SUMMARY

In this invention, methods of maintaining high efficiency of power converters across the entire load range and their implementations are disclosed. Specifically, the methods of this invention substantially increase the conversion efficiency at light loads by minimizing switching losses through use of an adaptive intermediate bulk voltage, which is varied as a function of the output power, the input voltage, and the hold-up time requirement.

The methods of present invention are applicable to any power conversion circuit. Specifically, it is applicable to isolated and non-isolated, single-stage and multi-stage, AC/DC, DC/DC, DC/AC, and AC/AC power supplies.

The present invention is better understood upon consideration of the detailed description below and the accompanying drawings.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 shows a block diagram of an exemplary embodiment according to the current invention.

FIG. 2 shows a block diagram of another exemplary embodiment according to the current invention.

FIG. 3 shows a block diagram of still another exemplary embodiment according to the current invention.

FIG. 4 illustrates the minimum intermediate bulk voltage V_(B) ^(min) as a function of the output power P_(B) and peak input voltage V_(IN) ^(pk).

FIG. 5 shows an exemplary embodiment, according to the current invention, of a circuit implementation utilizing a boost converter with an AC line voltage.

FIG. 6 shows another exemplary embodiment, according to the current invention, of a circuit implementation utilizing a boost converter with an AC line voltage.

FIG. 7 illustrates the desired minimum intermediate bulk voltage V_(B) ^(min) as compared to realizations using the first and second-order Taylor series expansions.

FIG. 8 shows an exemplary embodiment, according to the current invention, which includes a first order Taylor series approximation.

FIG. 9 illustrates both the continuous and discrete realizations of the minimum intermediate bulk voltage V_(B) ^(min).

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE EMBODIMENTS

Exemplary embodiments are discussed in detail below.

A block diagram of the preferred embodiment of the present invention that maximizes the light-load efficiency of a power converter is shown in FIG. 1. The power processor in FIG. 1 that supplies power to a load consists of a power converter, temporary energy-storage and power conditioning circuit, a control circuit, and a DC-DC load converter.

The intermediate bulk voltage V_(B) is set by the controller, and is determined as a function of the DC-DC load converter input current D_(DCin), input voltage V_(IN), bulk capacitor C_(B), and required hold-up time T_(H). Generally, as the output power of the power stage decreases (i.e., as the product of bulk voltage V_(B) and current D_(DCin) decreases), intermediate bulk voltage V_(B) is decreased by the controller to a value no less than the peak of input voltage V_(IN). In addition, the set point of the intermediate bulk voltage V_(B) is dependent on the bulk capacitor value (C_(B)) and the hold-up time requirement (T_(H)), such that in the event of a line drop out, the energy stored in the bulk capacitor C_(B) supplies the DC-DC load converter for the required hold-up time T_(H).

Input voltage V_(IN) can be either a DC input as shown in FIG. 1, or a rectified AC input as shown in the exemplary embodiment given in FIG. 2. In applications with an AC input, the power stage is also controlled to shape rectified input current I_(IN) ^(rec) to follow rectified AC input voltage v_(IN) ^(rec). Sensing of input voltage V_(IN) can be done after the bridge rectifier, as shown in the embodiment of FIG. 2, or directly, as shown in the exemplary embodiment shown in FIG. 3. Similarly, sensing of the power stage output current can be done either directly as in the exemplary embodiments shown in FIGS. 1 and 2, or indirectly at the output of the DC-DC load converter, as shown in the exemplary embodiment shown in FIG. 3. Finally, the power stage output power can be determined from the product of intermediate bulk voltage V_(B) and current I_(DCin), directly, or indirectly by taking the product of sensed output voltage V_(O) and sensed output current I_(O).

Generally, the highest power supply efficiency is obtained when intermediate bulk voltage V_(B) is minimal. When the power stage is implemented with a boost converter, intermediate bulk voltage V_(B) must be higher than the input voltage and high enough to store the required energy in the bulk capacitor so that in the event of a line-drop out the power supply output voltage can remain within regulation for the required hold-up time (T_(H)). In order to remain within regulation, intermediate bulk voltage V_(B) must be greater than minimum DC-DC load converter input voltage V_(DC) ^(min) which is dependent on the design of the DC-DC converter.

In applications which have a hold-up time requirement, the minimum intermediate bulk voltage value needed to deliver power to the load converter (referred to hereinafter as voltage V_(B1)) for the duration of a line drop-out is determined from the output power P_(B), where P_(B) is the output power of stage 1. Output power P_(B) can be written as a function of the difference in the stored energy within the bulk capacitor C_(B), i.e., the energy difference between the moment prior to a line drop-out and the remaining energy within the bulk capacitor after hold-up time T_(H) has passed, divided by hold up time T_(H):

$\begin{matrix} {P_{B} = {\frac{\Delta\; E}{T_{H}} = {\frac{{\frac{1}{2}C_{B}V_{B\; 1}^{2}} - {\frac{1}{2}C_{B}V_{DC}^{{{mi}n}^{2}}}}{T_{H}} = {\frac{C_{B}}{2T_{H}}\left( {V_{B\; 1}^{2} - V_{DC}^{{{mi}n}^{2}}} \right)}}}} & (1) \end{matrix}$ where the minimum DC-DC load converter voltage V_(DC) ^(min) is a design limit based on the operating range of the load converter. Voltage V_(B1) is therefore,

$\begin{matrix} {V_{B\; 1} = {\sqrt{{\frac{2T_{H}}{\underset{\underset{A}{︸}}{C_{B}}}P_{B}} + \underset{\underset{B}{︸}}{V_{DC}^{{{mi}n}^{2}}}} = \sqrt{{A \cdot P_{B}} + B}}} & (2) \end{matrix}$

It should be noted that voltage V_(B1) does not depend on input voltage V_(IN). For the boost converter with AC input, minimum intermediate bulk voltage V_(B) ^(min) in needs to be greater than peak input voltage V_(IN) ^(pk), while for any converter, the maximum intermediate bulk voltage is limited by maximum DC-DC load converter voltage V_(DC) ^(max). The minimum intermediate bulk voltage V_(B) ^(min) is therefore:

$\begin{matrix} {V_{B}^{m{in}} = \left\{ \begin{matrix} {{{\alpha \cdot V_{B\; 1}}\mspace{14mu}{if}\mspace{14mu} V_{IN}^{pk}} \leq {\alpha \cdot V_{B\; 1}} < V_{D\; C}^{\max}} \\ {{V_{IN}^{p\; k}\mspace{14mu}{if}\mspace{14mu}{\alpha \cdot V_{B\; 1}}} < V_{IN}^{p\; k}} \\ {{V_{D\; C}^{\max}\mspace{14mu}{if}\mspace{14mu}{\alpha \cdot V_{B\; 1}}} > V_{D\; C}^{\max}} \end{matrix} \right.} & (3) \end{matrix}$ which is illustrated in FIG. 4 and where α is a constant of proportionality equal to or greater than one.

An exemplary embodiment of a circuit implementation utilizing the boost converter with an ac line voltage is shown in FIG. 5. Input current shaping is done by the control through sensing of rectified line voltage v_(IN) ^(rec) and rectified input current I_(IN) ^(rec), whereas reference voltage V_(REF), connected at an input of error amplifier EA, is dependent on rectified input voltage v_(IN) ^(rec), intermediate bulk voltage V_(B) through gain K_(d), and current I_(DCin) through gain K_(i). It should be noted that voltage V_(B) can also be sensed independently from the voltage feedback loop. Power stage output power P_(B) is shown as the product of intermediate bulk voltage V_(B) and filtered dc-dc load converter input current <D_(DCin)>. Sensed output power P_(B) is then multiplied by constant gain A and summed with constant B·K_(i)·K_(d), to produce signal X, which is then multiplied by gain K_(M), where gain K_(M)=K_(d)/K_(i). Voltage V_(X) is then equal to the square root of the product of gain K_(M) and signal X, i.e., V_(X)=√{square root over (K_(m)·x)}. Input voltage v_(IN) ^(rec) is sensed through gain K_(F), where K_(F)=K_(d), and the peak of the sensed input voltage is detected and held, which is represented by voltage V_(A). Reference voltage V_(REF) is determined by a maximum voltage detector, which passes the highest voltage input (i.e., V_(REF)=V_(A) if V_(A)>V_(X) and V_(REF)=V_(X) if V_(X)>V_(A)) which is represented by voltage V_(R), and that is clamped to voltage V_(REF) ^(max) by a voltage limiter.

Implementing a square-root function is computationally inefficient using digital technology, and is generally very difficult to implement using analog technology. An approximation can be made to simplify the implementation by using a first order Taylor series expansion of voltage V_(B), which yields

$\begin{matrix} {{V_{B\; 1{approx}\; 1}^{\min} = {\frac{V_{REF}^{\min}}{K_{d}} + {\frac{H_{PV}}{K_{d}}P_{B}}}}{where}} & (4) \\ {V_{REF}^{\min} = {K_{d}\left( {\sqrt{{\frac{T_{H}}{C_{B}}P_{B}^{\max}} + V_{D\; C}^{\min^{2}}} - {\frac{T_{H}}{2C_{B}\sqrt{{\frac{T_{H}}{C_{B}}P_{B}^{\max}} + V_{D\; C}^{\min^{2}}}}P_{B}^{\max}}} \right)}} & (5) \\ {H_{PV} = {K_{d}\frac{T_{H}}{C_{B}\sqrt{{\frac{T_{H}}{C_{B}}P_{B}^{\max}} + V_{D\; C}^{\min^{2}}}}}} & (6) \end{matrix}$

Minimum intermediate bulk voltage V_(B) ^(min) is then approximated with V_(B1APP1) ^(min),

$\begin{matrix} {V_{B\; 1{APP}\; 1}^{m{in}} = \left\{ \begin{matrix} {{V_{B\; 1{approx}\; 1}^{m{in}}\mspace{14mu}{if}\mspace{14mu} V_{IN}^{pk}} \leq V_{B\; 1{approx}\; 1}^{m{in}} < V_{D\; C}^{\max}} \\ {{V_{IN}^{p\; k}\mspace{14mu}{if}\mspace{14mu} V_{B\; 1{approx}\; 1}^{m{in}}} < V_{IN}^{p\; k}} \\ {{V_{D\; C}^{\max}\mspace{14mu}{if}\mspace{14mu} V_{B\; 1{approx}\; 1}^{m{in}}} > V_{D\; C}^{\max}} \end{matrix} \right.} & (7) \end{matrix}$

An embodiment of a circuit implementation which realizes Eq. 7 utilizing the boost converter with an ac line voltage is shown in FIG. 6. As before, power stage output power P_(B) is the product of intermediate bulk voltage V_(B) and average current <I_(DCin)>. Sensed output power P_(B) is weighted by gain block H_(PV), and summed with minimum error reference voltage V_(REF) ^(min)·K_(i)·K_(d), which is represented by voltage V_(X). As in the exemplary embodiment shown in FIG. 5, the peak input voltage is represented by voltage V_(A), and reference voltage V_(REF) is determined by a maximum voltage detector, which passes the highest voltage input (i.e., V_(REF)=V_(A) if V_(A)>V_(X), and V_(REF)=V_(X) if V_(X)>V_(A)) which is represented by voltage V_(R), and that is clamped to voltage V_(REF) ^(max) by a voltage limiter.

A second order Taylor series expansion leads to a better approximation with a higher level of complexity as expressed in the following Eq. 8:

$\begin{matrix} {V_{B\; 1{approx}\; 2}^{m{in}} = {\frac{1}{K_{d}}\left( {\sqrt{{\frac{T_{H}}{C_{B}}P_{B}^{\max}} + V_{D\; C}^{\min^{2}}} + {\frac{T_{H}}{C_{B}}\frac{\left( {P_{B} - {\frac{1}{2}P_{B}^{{ma}x}}} \right)}{\sqrt{{\frac{T_{H}}{C_{B}}P_{B}^{\max}} + V_{D\; C}^{\min^{2}}}}} - {\frac{T_{H}^{2}}{2C_{B}^{2}}\frac{\left( {P_{B} - {\frac{1}{2}P_{B}^{{ma}x}}} \right)^{2}}{\left( {{\frac{T_{H}}{C_{B}}P_{B}^{\max}} + V_{D\; C}^{\min^{2}}} \right)^{\frac{3}{2}}}}} \right)}} & (8) \end{matrix}$ It should be noted that maximum output power P_(B) ^(max), hold up time T_(H), and capacitance C_(B) are considered constant, and therefore, no additional square-root operations are required.

Minimum intermediate bulk voltage V_(B) ^(min) is then approximated with V_(BAPP2) ^(min),

$\begin{matrix} {V_{B\;{APP}\; 2}^{m{in}} = \left\{ \begin{matrix} {{V_{B\; 1{approx}\; 2}^{m{in}}\mspace{14mu}{if}\mspace{14mu} V_{IN}^{pk}} \leq V_{B\; 1{approx}\; 2}^{m{in}} < V_{D\; C}^{\max}} \\ {{V_{IN}^{p\; k}\mspace{14mu}{if}\mspace{14mu} V_{B\; 1{approx}\; 2}^{m{in}}} < V_{IN}^{p\; k}} \\ {{V_{D\; C}^{\max}\mspace{14mu}{if}\mspace{14mu} V_{B\; 1{approx}\; 2}^{m{in}}} > V_{D\; C}^{\max}} \end{matrix} \right.} & (9) \end{matrix}$

The variation of minimum intermediate bulk voltage V_(B) ^(min) with power stage output power is compared with both a first and second order Taylor series expansion as shown in the embodiment of FIG. 7. For additional accuracy, embodiments implementing higher-order Taylor series expansions are possible.

An additional approximation can be made which would remove the necessity of using a multiplier by sensing the DC-DC output current I_(O), as shown in the embodiment of FIG. 8 which also includes a first-order Taylor series approximation. Since the output voltage is regulated, the value of the output voltage is constant and, therefore, can be included as a scaling factor. It should be noted that the efficiency of the DC-DC converter must also be estimated and included in the scaling factor. Isolation, such as an optocoupler as shown in the embodiment of FIG. 8, is required in some designs.

In FIG. 8, minimum intermediate bus voltage V_(B1) ^(min) is approximated as

$\begin{matrix} {{V_{B\; 1{approx}\; 1}^{m{in}} = {\frac{V_{REF}^{{mi}n}}{K_{d}} + {\frac{H_{PV}}{K_{d}}{KI}_{o}}}},{where}} & (10) \\ {K = \frac{V_{O}^{nom}}{\eta_{{d\; c} - {d\; c}}}} & (11) \end{matrix}$ and where V_(O) ^(nom) is the nominal output voltage, and η_(dc-dc) is the efficiency of DC-DC converter. It is noted that the gain of optocoupler is assumed to be unity.

The change of intermediate bulk voltage V_(B) can be either a continuous change as shown previously, or a discrete step change, as shown in FIG. 9. Although two discrete steps are possible, generally, the efficiency of the power supply increases as the number of discrete steps increases.

The examples and embodiments described herein are non-limiting examples.

The invention is described in detail with respect to exemplary embodiments, and it will now be apparent from the foregoing to those skilled in the art that changes and modifications may be made without departing from the invention in its broader aspects, and the invention, therefore, as defined in the claims, is intended to cover all such changes and modifications which fall within the true spirit of the invention. 

1. A power supply having a specified hold-up time that receives an input voltage and provides an output voltage, comprising: a first power stage that receives the input voltage; a second power stage that generates the output voltage; an intermediate charge storage device coupled between the first and second power conversion stages providing an intermediate output voltage in response to the input voltage; and a controller that controls the intermediate output voltage during normal operation before line drop-out according to a voltage function that is based on the specified hold-up time.
 2. The power supply as set forth in claim 1, wherein the voltage function substantially minimizes the intermediate output voltage.
 3. The power supply as set forth in claim 2, wherein minimum intermediate output voltage V_(B) ^(min) is minimized according to the following formula: $V_{B}^{m{in}} = \left\{ \begin{matrix} {{{\alpha \cdot V_{B\; 1}}\mspace{14mu}{if}\mspace{14mu} V_{IN}^{pk}} \leq {\alpha \cdot V_{B\; 1}} < V_{D\; C}^{\max}} \\ {{V_{IN}^{p\; k}\mspace{14mu}{if}\mspace{14mu}{\alpha \cdot V_{B\; 1}}} < V_{IN}^{p\; k}} \\ {{V_{D\; C}^{\max}\mspace{14mu}{if}\mspace{14mu}{\alpha \cdot V_{B\; 1}}} > V_{D\; C}^{\max}} \end{matrix} \right.$ where V_(IN) ^(pk) is the peak input voltage, V_(DC) ^(min) is a minimum voltage by design, V_(DC) ^(max) is a maximum voltage by design, α is a constant of proportionality equal to or greater than one, and $V_{B\; 1} = \sqrt{{\frac{2T_{H}}{C_{B}}P_{B}} + V_{DC}^{{{mi}n}^{2}}}$  where T_(H) is the specified hold-up time, C_(B) is the capacitance of the intermediate charge storage device, and P_(B) is the output power of the first power stage.
 4. The power supply as set forth in claim 3, wherein V_(B1) is approximated as an n^(th) order Taylor series expansion of the square root operation.
 5. The power supply as set forth in claim 4, wherein the approximation is performed with regard to output power P_(B) of the first power stage.
 6. The power supply as set forth in claim 4, wherein the approximation is performed with regard to the output current of the power supply.
 7. The power supply as set forth in claim 1, wherein at least one of said first or second power stages is a power conversion stage.
 8. The power supply as set forth in claim 7, wherein said power conversion stage is a switching power conversion stage.
 9. The power supply as set forth in claim 8, wherein said switching power conversions stage comprises at least one of a boost converter and a buck converter.
 10. The power supply as set forth in claim 9, wherein said power conversion stage comprises a current shaping stage.
 11. The power supply as set forth in claim 10, wherein said current shaping stage is a power factor correction (PFC) stage.
 12. The power supply as set forth in claim 1, wherein said intermediate charge storage device comprises at least one capacitor.
 13. The power supply as set forth in claim 1, wherein the function associated with an output power P_(B) that is derived from the intermediate bulk voltage and the input current of the second power stage.
 14. The power supply as set forth in claim 13, wherein the function is proportional to the output current of the second power stage.
 15. The controller as set forth in claim 1, wherein a minimum intermediate bulk voltage is determined using at least one of digital or analog technologies.
 16. The power supply as set forth in claim 1, wherein the voltage function is based on the specified hold-up time and output power of the first power stage.
 17. The power supply as set forth in claim 16, wherein the voltage function is based on the specified hold-up time, output power of the first power stage, peak input voltage, minimum voltage by design, maximum voltage by design, and capacitance of the intermediate charge storage device. 